The presence of these psycho-social characteristics in an individual has been found to be associated with positive school performances, pro-social behaviors during adolescence, membership in non-deviant peer groups, and positive relationships with parents and peers.
Below are three theories that are common for you to review and contemplate their connection to our youth programming.
1. Uri Bronfenbrenner (1986) has proposed a theory of development that is consistent with the conceptual model, although the model does not use Bronfenbrenner's terminology or classification system. Bronfenbrenner views individuals as developing within a set of embedded contexts. In his theory, a "microsystem" represents the community context with which a child has direct contact. A child's microsystem includes family, friends, teachers, coaches, and other persons important to the child. The term "mesosystem" refers to the aspects of the community context that have an indirect impact on the child through their effects on key microsystems. Examples of mesosystem factors include the parents' workplace, parents' friends, and teachers' colleagues and supervisors. The "exosystem" is composed of the institutions and organizations in the community that are relevant to child development, such as child care or educational institutions. Finally, the "macrosystem" comprises the mores, beliefs, and values of a society that influence child and family life. For Bronfenbrenner, these systems have interrelated and interactive effects on a child's development because they determine the nature of the child's experiences in the world.
The conceptual model for understanding youth development addresses the levels noted in Bronfenbrenner's system, with the exception of the mesosystem. The exclusion of this contextual aspect was based on a lack of sufficient research indicating the relationship between aspects of this context and youth development. The microsystem context is broken down in the model into community, family, and peer factors because research on these factors indicates that each has a unique impact on developmental pathways.
2. Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory provides a perspective of how behavior is acquired, maintained, and modified by individuals in society, regardless of their age or developmental status. Bandura (1982, 1986), a prominent social learning theorist, has proposed that behavior is shaped primarily through modeling, or observing behaviors, and reinforcement, or experiencing positive consequences to behaviors. Cognitive processes exist that mediate behavior change, including a sense of self-efficacy, which is developed through experiences of mastery of skills or tasks.
Acquiring and improving skills occurs when an individual is exposed to performance opportunities, observes others successfully performing the desired behavior, is provided with self-instruction experiences, or is exposed to verbal persuasion. Modeling can produce novel responses by providing cues for new behaviors, can inhibit or encourage existing behavioral patterns, or can facilitate performance of previously learned behaviors. Modeling also affects the acquisition of both social and antisocial behaviors.
Aspects of social learning theory are consistent with the youth development framework. The notion of self-efficacy, for example, is somewhat consistent with the idea of the development of a sense of industry or competency. However, in the conceptual model, a sense of industry and competency is viewed as less task specific than self-efficacy and as a more generalizable characteristic of an individual. The social learning concept of reinforcement is a part of the model's emphasis on the importance of winning recognition for accomplishments and residing in family environments in which pro-social behaviors are rewarded and antisocial behaviors are controlled through negative sanctions.
3. All psychoanalytic theories have their origins in Freudian theory, they do not represent a single theoretical approach. Instead, the major psychoanalytic theorists of the current century developed varying conceptions of the influences on human development and its course throughout the lifespan. These theorists include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Peter Blos, Anna Freud, Harry Stack Sullivan, Eric Fromm, and Erik Erikson.
According to most psychoanalytic theories, the latency stage of development, which begins as the child enters school, is characterized by the accomplishment of several developmental tasks; primary tasks include increased control over instinctual (i.e., biologically determined) impulses and increased independence from parents. In psychoanalytic theories, increased control is facilitated by the development of a conscience based on the internalization of, and the identification with, parental authority. With it, the child's respect for law and order assumes a dominant place. As a result of achieving greater independence from parents, the child is less likely to be frustrated by the parent, and this produces greater emotional stability.
Unlike most developmental theories, psychoanalytic theory views adolescence as a time of regression rather than progression, at least at its onset. From the perspective of many psychoanalytic theories, the biological changes that occur with puberty bring about a regression from the emotional stability of the middle childhood period. The adolescent begins to show signs of experiencing stress and of giving up some of the accomplishments in education and social conformity that were achieved during the latency period. As a result, the adolescent manifests not only regressive tendencies but also a variety of defensive maneuvers to ward off the regressive pull.
Eric Fromm's perspective on adolescence has some unique features that have implications for understanding youth development. Fromm (1941) describes youth as being caught between their need for autonomy and their need for continued dependence. To escape this dilemma, they attempt to reduce freedom. They may do this by joining organizations that have specific behavioral expectations and demand conformity to those expectations; such organizations might include fraternities, gangs, religious sects, or the military. Youth also may attempt to reduce their freedom by engaging in actions that result in constraints or restrictions on their behaviors, such as marriage or parenthood.
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| Uri Bronfenbrenner |
1. Uri Bronfenbrenner (1986) has proposed a theory of development that is consistent with the conceptual model, although the model does not use Bronfenbrenner's terminology or classification system. Bronfenbrenner views individuals as developing within a set of embedded contexts. In his theory, a "microsystem" represents the community context with which a child has direct contact. A child's microsystem includes family, friends, teachers, coaches, and other persons important to the child. The term "mesosystem" refers to the aspects of the community context that have an indirect impact on the child through their effects on key microsystems. Examples of mesosystem factors include the parents' workplace, parents' friends, and teachers' colleagues and supervisors. The "exosystem" is composed of the institutions and organizations in the community that are relevant to child development, such as child care or educational institutions. Finally, the "macrosystem" comprises the mores, beliefs, and values of a society that influence child and family life. For Bronfenbrenner, these systems have interrelated and interactive effects on a child's development because they determine the nature of the child's experiences in the world.
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| Figure 1: Brofenbrenner's model |
The conceptual model for understanding youth development addresses the levels noted in Bronfenbrenner's system, with the exception of the mesosystem. The exclusion of this contextual aspect was based on a lack of sufficient research indicating the relationship between aspects of this context and youth development. The microsystem context is broken down in the model into community, family, and peer factors because research on these factors indicates that each has a unique impact on developmental pathways.
2. Social Learning Theory
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| Albert Bandura |
Acquiring and improving skills occurs when an individual is exposed to performance opportunities, observes others successfully performing the desired behavior, is provided with self-instruction experiences, or is exposed to verbal persuasion. Modeling can produce novel responses by providing cues for new behaviors, can inhibit or encourage existing behavioral patterns, or can facilitate performance of previously learned behaviors. Modeling also affects the acquisition of both social and antisocial behaviors.
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| Figure 2: Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura |
3. All psychoanalytic theories have their origins in Freudian theory, they do not represent a single theoretical approach. Instead, the major psychoanalytic theorists of the current century developed varying conceptions of the influences on human development and its course throughout the lifespan. These theorists include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Peter Blos, Anna Freud, Harry Stack Sullivan, Eric Fromm, and Erik Erikson.
According to most psychoanalytic theories, the latency stage of development, which begins as the child enters school, is characterized by the accomplishment of several developmental tasks; primary tasks include increased control over instinctual (i.e., biologically determined) impulses and increased independence from parents. In psychoanalytic theories, increased control is facilitated by the development of a conscience based on the internalization of, and the identification with, parental authority. With it, the child's respect for law and order assumes a dominant place. As a result of achieving greater independence from parents, the child is less likely to be frustrated by the parent, and this produces greater emotional stability.
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| Erik Erikson |
Unlike most developmental theories, psychoanalytic theory views adolescence as a time of regression rather than progression, at least at its onset. From the perspective of many psychoanalytic theories, the biological changes that occur with puberty bring about a regression from the emotional stability of the middle childhood period. The adolescent begins to show signs of experiencing stress and of giving up some of the accomplishments in education and social conformity that were achieved during the latency period. As a result, the adolescent manifests not only regressive tendencies but also a variety of defensive maneuvers to ward off the regressive pull.
Eric Fromm's perspective on adolescence has some unique features that have implications for understanding youth development. Fromm (1941) describes youth as being caught between their need for autonomy and their need for continued dependence. To escape this dilemma, they attempt to reduce freedom. They may do this by joining organizations that have specific behavioral expectations and demand conformity to those expectations; such organizations might include fraternities, gangs, religious sects, or the military. Youth also may attempt to reduce their freedom by engaging in actions that result in constraints or restrictions on their behaviors, such as marriage or parenthood.
Some aspects of psychoanalytic theory have been incorporated into the youth development model. For one, Erikson's (1963, 1968) propositions regarding the development of a sense of industry or competency and a stable identity are key features to understanding youth development and therefore feature prominently in the model. Fromm's (1941) description of the need for adolescents to experience both autonomy and a sense of connectedness with significant others in their lives is consistent with the concept of individuation in the conceptual model.
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| Figure 3: Erik Ericson's Eight Psycho-social Stages of Human Development
The question that I would LOVE for you to address after reading this theories:
How does Ag Edu address these theories?
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